| Iran |
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The politics of Iran take place in a framework of theocracy guided by an Islamist ideology. The December 1979 constitution, and its 1989 amendment, define the political, economic, and social order of the Islamic Republic of Iran, declaring that Shi'a Islam of the Twelver school of thought is Iran's official religion.
Iran has an elected president, parliament (or Majlis), and an "Assembly of Experts" (which elects the Supreme Leader of Iran), and local councils. According to the constitution all candidates running for these positions must be vetted by the Guardian Council (with the exception of those running for "Assembly of Experts") before being elected.
In addition there are nontransparent unelected organization (usually under Supreme Leader's control) trying to "protect the state's Islamic character".[1] The majority of the Iranian political parties are banned.
| Office | Name | Party | Since |
|---|---|---|---|
| Supreme Leader | Ali Khamenei | CCA | 4 June 1989 |
| President | Mahmoud Ahmadinejad | ABII | 10 August 2005 |
As in almost all revolutions, the early days of the regime were characterized by political turmoil. In November 1979 the American embassy was seized and its occupants taken hostage and kept captive for 444 days. The eight year Iran–Iraq War killed hundreds of thousands and cost the country billions of dollars. By mid-1982, a succession of power struggles eliminated first the center of political spectrum and then the leftists[2][3][4] leaving the Ayatollah Khomeini and his supporters in power.
Iran's post-revolution challenges have included the imposition of economic sanctions and suspension of diplomatic relations with Iran by the United States because of the hostage crisis and other acts of terrorism that the U.S. government and some others have accused Iran of sponsoring. Emigration has cost Iran "two to four million entrepreneurs, professionals, technicians, and skilled craftspeople (and their capital)." [5][6] For this and other reasons Iran's economy has not prospered. Poverty rose in absolute terms by nearly 45% during the first 6 years of the Islamic revolution [7] and per capita income has yet to reach pre-revolutionary levels.[8][9]
The Islamic Republic Party was Iran's ruling political party and for some years its only political party until its dissolution in 1987. Iran had no functioning political parties until the Executives of Construction Party formed in 1994 to run for the fifth parliamentary elections, mainly out of executive body of the government close to the then-president Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani. After the election of Mohammad Khatami in 1997, more parties started to work, mostly of the reformist movement and opposed by hard-liners. This led to incorporation and official activity of many other groups, including hard-liners. The Iranian Government is opposed by a few armed political groups, including the Mojahedin-e-Khalq, the People's Fedayeen, and the Kurdish Democratic Party.
For other political parties see List of political parties in Iran.
The most powerful political office in the Islamic Republic is that of the Supreme Leader, of which there have been two: the founder of the Republic, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, and his successor, Ali Khamenei.
Historically the Supreme Leader has remained aloof from election politics. However, in the 2009 election, some of the pronouncements by Ali Khamenei were perceived by many to favor the incumbent.
The Leader appoints the heads of many powerful posts - the commanders of the armed forces, the director of the national radio and television network, the heads of the major religious foundations, the prayer leaders in city mosques, and the members of national security councils dealing with defence and foreign affairs. He also appoints the chief judge, the chief prosecutor, special tribunals and, with the help of the chief judge, half of the 12 jurists of the Guardian Council – the powerful body that decides both what bills may become law and who may run for president or parliament.[10] Also according to Iranian constitution the Supreme Leader asserts the authority of the president. He can veto the laws made by the parliament and traditionally he permits for presidential candidates to proclaim their candidacy. According to a common opinion in Iran, the Supreme Leader is the one who is over the law not under. According to a statement by a prayer leader in Tehran, even he can abolish the legality of a marriage between a couple ["Only In case if husband does not fulfill his duty towards his wife neither pay necessary responsibilities which Islam has imposed on him to perform towards his dependents and in such case if wife wants to have devorce and he does not give divorce and torches her then in such case only Supereme Leader can act as an advocate on her behalf issue notice and If he does not respond then Supreme leader use his Islamic authority called "Wilayat" and give devorce for the relief of victim woman"]. This is of course a religious point of view that is not openly expressed in the laws but a de facto opinion that traditionally held by many fanatics and leaders in legal parties.
The Constitution defines the President as the highest state authority after the Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage, by those 18 years old and older [1], for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running. After being elected, the president must be appointed by the Supreme Leader. The whole legality of a president stands on the appointment. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Currently, 10 Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 21 ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence.
The current legislature of Iran is unicameral. Before the Iranian Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, with the senate (upper house) half elected, half appointed by the Shah. The senate was removed in the new constitution.
The Parliament of Iran comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Parliament drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Parliament candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians.
The Guardian Council is composed of 12 jurists, including six clerics appointed by the Supreme Leader, and six jurists elected by the Majles from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System. The Council interprets the constitution and may reject bills from parliament deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law). These are referred back to parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.
As of the early 1990s, the Guardian Council vets (approves) candidates for national election in Iran.
According to the CIA World Factbook, The Guardian Council is a part of the Executive branch of the government.[2]
The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Majlis and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.
Its members include heads of the three government branches, the clerical members of the Guardian Council and various other members appointed by the supreme leader for three-year terms. Cabinet members and parliamentary leaders also serve as temporary members when issues under their jurisdictions are under review. [11]
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the supreme court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court’s rulings are final and cannot be appealed. It has also been known to organizations such as the United Nations and the World Criminal Court that a very complex system of bribery has developed because of the high crime rate.
The Assembly of Experts, which meets for at least two days, twice annually,[12] comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. Based on the laws approved by the first Assembly, the Council of Guardians has to determine candidates' eligibility using a written examination. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.
| Party | Candidate | Votes | Percentage | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alliance of Builders | Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (inc.) | 24,527,516 | 62.63% | |||
| Green Movement | Mir-Hossein Mousavi | 13,216,411 | 33.75% | |||
| Moderation and Development | Mohsen Rezaee | 678,240 | 1.73% | |||
| National Trust | Mehdi Karroubi | 333,635 | 0.85% | |||
| Valid votes | 38,755,802 | 98.95% | ||||
| Blank or invalid votes | 409,389 | 1.05% | ||||
| Totals | 39,165,191 | 100.00% | ||||
| Voter turnout | 85% | |||||
| Sources: Ministry of Interior of Iran[13] | ||||||
For the parliamentary elections of February 20, 2004, the Ministry of Interior Affairs announced a 50% turnout, the lowest in any general election since 1979. It was disputed by the Guardian Council, which claimed the result was closer to 60%. Conservative forces received 54% (156 seats), reformists received 14% of the vote (40 seats), and independents (34 seats); 60 seats were up for runoff election in May 2004. In the run-up to the election many reformist candidates, including about 80 members of the outgoing parliament, were disqualified by the Guardian Council; more than a 100 MPs protested by staging a sit-in in the parliament that lasted for about 3 weeks and ended to no avail. About 120 MPs then resigned and major reformist parties and groups stated they will not take part in the election but did not boycott it. The crisis resulted in a crack in the reformist front, when the Militant Clerics League, of which President Khatami is a member, announced they will participate in the election.
| Coalition | Seats (1st rd.) | Seats (2nd rd.) | Seats (Total) | % |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Conservatives | 143 | 52 | 195 | 67.2% |
| Reformists | 31 | 20 | 51 | 17.9% |
| Independents | 29 | 10 | 39 | 13.4% |
| Armenians recognized minority religion | 2 | 2 | 0.6% | |
| Assyrian and Chaldean (Catholic) recognized minority religion | 1 | 1 | 0.3% | |
| Jewish recognized minority religion | 1 | 1 | 0.3% | |
| Zoroastrian recognized minority religion | 1 | 1 | 0.3% | |
| Total (Turnout: 60%) | 208 | 82 | 290 | 100% |
| Source: IPU | ||||
Active student groups include the pro-reform "Office for Strengthening Unity" and "the Union of Islamic Student Societies';
Iranian opposition groups have been severely repressed by the regime, an example being the Freedom party of Iran that is now "forbidden". Repression of opposition groups is becoming more harsh as of mid 2007.[15] As a result the political pressure inside Iran many opposition figures have left Iran and now live abroad.
The military and the Corps of the Guardians (often mistranslated as guards) of the Islamic Revolution (or Sepaah in Persian meaning the Corps) are charged with defending Iran's borders and Baseej (Persian for Mobilization) militia are charged with maintaining both external and internal security.
Iran consists of 30 provinces (ostaan-haa, singular: ostan): Ardabil, Azarbayjan-e Gharbi, Azarbayjan-e Sharqi, Bushehr, Chahar Mahall va Bakhtiari, Esfahan, Fars, Gilan, Golestan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Kerman, Kermanshahan, North Khorasan, Khorasan, South Khorasan, Khuzestan, Kohkiluyeh va Buyer Ahmadi, Kordestan, Lorestan, Markazi, Mazandaran, Qom, Qazvin, Semnan, Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, Zanjan. The provinces are each headed by a governor general. The provinces are further divided into counties, districts, and villages.
Local councils are elected by public vote to 4-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article 7 in Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and coordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.
In Iran’s state budget for the Iranian calendar year 1388 (2009–2010), of the $102 billion earmarked for government spending,[17]
Oil revenues are calculated based on the average price of $37.50 per barrel at the US Dollar conversion rate of 9,500 Rials.[18] Any surplus revenues from the sale of crude oil and gas are to be paid into the Oil Stabilization Fund (OSF). The approved "total budget", including state owned commercial companies, was $295 billion for the same period.[17] Iran balances its external accounts around $75 per barrel.[19] A unique feature of Iran's economy is the large size of the religious foundations whose combined budgets make up more than 30% that of the central government.[20][21][22]
The public budget was $165 billion (1,770 trillion rials) in Iranian year 2011-2012. The Iranian Parliament also approved a total budget of $500 billion (5,170 trillion rials) that aside from the government, or public budget also includes spending for state-owned companies, also called "total budget".[23] The budget is based on an oil price of $80 per barrel. The value of the US dollar is estimated at IRR 10,500 for the same period. the 2011-total budget shows a 45-percent increase compared with that of 2011 which stood at $368 billion.[24]
The Government seeks to increase the share of tax revenue in the budget through the implementation of the so-called “economic reform plan” through more effective tax collection from businesses. According to the head of the Department of Statistics of Iran, if the rules of budgeting were observed in this very structure, the government could save at least 30 to 35 percent on its expenses.[25]
In 2004, about 45 percent of the government's budget came from exports of oil and natural gas revenues, although this varies with the fluctuations in world petroleum markets and 31 percent came from taxes and fees.[16] Overall, an estimated 50 percent of Iran’s GDP was exempt from taxes in FY 2004.[26]
The budget for Iranian year 1389 (2010–2011), which starts on March 21, amounts to $368.4bn, representing an increase of 31 per cent on the previous year and is based on a projected oil price of $60 a barrel compared with just $37.50 last year.[18] As of 2010, oil income accounts for 80% of Iran's foreign currency revenues and 60% of the nation's overall budget.[27]
Because of changes in the classification of budgetary figures, comparison of categories among different years is not possible. However, since the Revolution the government’s general budget payments have averaged:[26]
For a breakdown of expenditures for social and economic purposes, see attached chart.
In FY 2004, central government expenditures were divided as follows:[26]
Among current expenditures, wages and salaries accounted for 36 percent; subsidies and transfers to households accounted for 22 percent (not including indirect subsidies). Earmarked expenditures totaled 13 percent of the central government total. Between FY 2000 and FY 2004, total expenditures and net lending accounted for about 26 percent of GDP.[26] According to the Vice President for Parliamentary Affairs, Iran's subsidy reforms would save 20 percent of the country's budget.[28]
| Year 1386 (2007–08)
(realized) |
% of nominal GDP | Year 1387 (2008–09)
(approved budget) |
Year 1387 (2008–09)
(realized) |
Revenues and payments |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 191,815.3 | 11.4% | 217,155 | 239,741.4 | Tax revenues (i.e. Income tax, Corporate tax, VAT, Customs fees etc.) |
| 106,387.8 | 121,598.1 | 139,597.1 | (+) Other revenues (i.e. Public corporations’ dividend, Government services & other fees) | |
| 298,203.1 | 338,753.1 | 379,338.5 | = Revenues | |
| - 421,334.1 | 16.1% | - 621,126 | - 564,290.0 | (–) Expenditure payments/current (i.e. Government wages) (see also: Iranian targeted subsidy plan) |
| -123,131 | -4.7% | -282,372.9 | -184,951.5 | = (+/-) Operational balance |
| 173,519.1 | 298,865.6 | 215,650.3 | Sale of oil and oil products (see also: Ministry of Petroleum of Iran & National Iranian Oil Company) | |
| 1,272.7 | 3,095 | 986.5 | (+) Others (Value of movable and immovable properties) | |
| 174,791.8 | 301,960.6 | 216,636.7 | = Transfer of capital assets | |
| - 147,715.8 (-157,215.8)(2) | 5.6% | - 251,573.8 | - 213,495.8 | (–) Acquisition of capital assets/development expenditures (in Transport, Urban and Rural Development and Housing Provision Plans in the Framework of Welfare and Social Security System) |
| 27,076.1 (17,576.1)(2) | 50,386.8 | 3,140.9 | = Net transfer of capital assets | |
| -123,131 | -4.7% | -282,372.9 | -184,951.5 | + Operational balance (see above for details) |
| -96,054.9 (-105,554.9)(2) | -3.7% | -231,986.1 | -181,810.6 | = Operational and capital balance (Operational balance + Net transfer of capital assets) |
| 156,614.1 (166,114.0)(2) | 267,771.6 | 218,260.0 | Transfer of financial assets (i.e. Privatization proceeds, World Bank facilities, Sale of participation papers & National development fund utilization) | |
| - 60,559.2 | - 35,785.5 | - 36,449.4 | (–) Acquisition of financial assets (i.e. Repayment of external debts and obligations (out of the Oil Stabilization Fund) | |
| 96,054.9 (105,554.9)(2) | 3.7% | 231,986.1 | 181,810.6 | = Net transfer of financial assets (Transfer of financial assets – Acquisition of financial assets) |
Notes:
1) Since 2002, the latest International Monetary Fund Guidelines on government financial statistics have been used as a model to prepare annual budgetary acts. Accordingly, revenues are classified into “taxes and other revenues”, and “oil sales” which had earlier been classified as revenue are now referred to as "transfer of capital assets".
2) In 2007/08, it includes budget supplement at Rls. 9,500 billion.
3) The government budget does not include state revenues and expenses derived from state owned commercial entreprises.[33]
4) The government budget does not account for subsides paid to state owned commercial enterprise. See also Subsidy reform plan.[33]
5) Excluding special revenues and expenditures and the figure for transparency in the price (subsidy) of energy bearers.[30]
6) For "Total Government Budget" (including state owned commercial companies), see Statistical Center of Iran.
According to the constitution, the Guardian Council oversees and approves electoral candidates for most national elections in Iran. The Guardian Council has 12 members, six clerics, appointed by the Supreme Leader and six jurists, elected by the Majlis from among the Muslim jurists nominated by the Head of the Judicial System, who is appointed by the Supreme Leader. According to the current law, the Guardian Council approves the Assembly of Experts candidates, which in turn supervise and elect the Supreme Leader.
The reformists say this system creates a closed circle of power.[35] Iranian reformists, such as Mohammad-Ali Abtahi have considered this to be the core legal obstacle for the reform movement in Iran.[36][37][38][39][40]
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